From Literary Society to Crucible of Nationalism: The Organization, Activities, and Historical Significance of Ewha Hakdang's Imunhoe

I. Cradle of the New Woman: The Founding and Ideology of Ewha Hakdang

To understand the historical importance of Ewha Hakdang's Imunhoe (以文會), one must first examine the unique character of its parent institution, Ewha Hakdang. More than a simple educational institution, Ewha Hakdang was a transformative social space where, paradoxically, Korean nationalism and consciousness of women's liberation could sprout and grow, despite being founded by foreign powers.

On May 31, 1886, American Methodist female missionary Mary F. Scranton opened the doors to women's education in her home in Jeong-dong, Seoul, with just a single student. The founding purpose of this corporation, as stated in Article 1 of its articles of incorporation, was to provide education "based on the fundamental educational ideals of the Republic of Korea and grounded in the Christian spirit". In the early days, Scranton attempted to recruit daughters from noble families but failed, ultimately accepting a poor girl or an orphan as her first student. This starkly illustrates the deep resistance to female education in Joseon society at the time. However, in 1887, when Empress Myeongseong bestowed the school name 'Ewha' (梨花), the fledgling institution gained the legitimacy of royal recognition.

Ewha Hakdang's educational philosophy evolved dynamically with the changing times. The initial educational ideal was to cultivate 'better Koreans,' but this soon developed into a more radical mission. The school began to consciously foster and promote gender equality, taking on a pioneering role in women's liberation. The fact that the early student body was divided between the upper class, including the daughters and wives of progressive intellectuals, and the children of commoners made Ewha Hakdang a unique social melting pot. In this environment, students were able to form a modern civic consciousness and sense of solidarity that transcended traditional class structures.

After the Japanese annexation in 1910, Ewha Hakdang found itself in the complex position of a private school under the surveillance and control of the Japanese Government-General of Joseon. Although it operated within the colonial education system, receiving official recognition as Ewha Women's College in 1925, this very oppressive environment of colonial rule became the backdrop for more intense nationalist activities within the school. Education based on the Christian faith also served as a partial shield, allowing some activities to evade Japanese surveillance under the pretext of religious freedom. Thus, the evolution of Ewha Hakdang's educational ideology beyond simple enlightenment to the promotion of women's liberation and equality laid the groundwork for students to grow from passive recipients of knowledge into active agents of social change. Without this ideological development at Ewha Hakdang, the birth of the Imunhoe—where students autonomously organized to cultivate their intellect and national consciousness—would have been impossible. In other words, the Imunhoe was not merely an extracurricular club but an inevitable institutional product of Ewha Hakdang's educational ideals.

II. The Birth of Student Agency: The Establishment and Organization of the Imunhoe (以文會)

The Imunhoe marks a significant milestone in the history of Korean women's education as the first official organization through which students of Ewha Hakdang began to voice their own opinions and cultivate self-governing capabilities. This organization provided a structured environment for the students' intellectual and social development, laying the foundation for it to later grow into a focal point of the national movement.

The Imunhoe was officially organized in 1907, but its conception began around 1905, a time of heightened national crisis following the Eulsa Treaty. This suggests that the birth of the Imunhoe was intertwined not just with academic curiosity but with a sense of the era's crisis. As the first student organization within Ewha Hakdang, the Imunhoe was established with the active support and guidance of teachers. Pioneering educators like Kim Ransa (then known as Ha Ransa) and Lee Seong-hoe were particularly instrumental in guiding its initial organization and activities.

As its name, 'Imunhoe' (以文會)—meaning 'a gathering through writing (culture)'—suggests, its initial character was similar to that of a modern literary and arts club. However, its objectives went beyond simple hobby sharing to the practical application of knowledge learned in the classroom and the cultivation of students' self-governing abilities.

Membership was open to the entire student body, but restricted to students aged 15 and older. This was intended to ensure that students with a certain level of intellectual maturity and debating ability formed the core of the activities. Regular meetings were held every Friday afternoon, providing a consistent and systematic venue for student activities. The organizational characteristics of the Imunhoe can be summarized in the following table:

Item	Content
Official Name	Imunhoe (以文會)
Year Established	1907 (conceived around 1905)
Affiliated Institution	Ewha Hakdang
Nature	First official student self-governing organization at Ewha Hakdang
Key Guiding Teachers	Kim Ransa (金蘭史), Lee Seong-hoe (李星會)
Membership	Ewha Hakdang students aged 15 and older
Regular Meetings	Every Friday afternoon
Initial Purpose	Literary and cultural activities, development of student talents and self-governing abilities
Evolved Purpose	Formation of nationalist discourse, discussion of current affairs, focal point for the independence movement
Successor Organization	Developmentally absorbed into the YWCA (Young Women's Christian Association) in 1922

With such a systematic organizational structure, the Imunhoe was more than a mere social club. As a self-governing body operated by students under the guidance of teachers, it provided participating students with experience in democratic decision-making processes and organizational management. This experience became a crucial foundation that enabled them to act not as a mere crowd but as organizers and leaders when they later participated in major social movements like the March 1st Movement.

III. A Leader Who Lit a Fire in a Darkened Lamp: Kim Ransa, the Spiritual Architect of the Imunhoe

The role of teacher Kim Ransa (金蘭史, 1872-1919) was absolute in shaping the spirit and direction of the Imunhoe. She was more than a simple faculty advisor; she was a living role model who embodied the ideal of the 'New Woman' through her own life. Her progressive ideas and educational philosophy were directly reflected in the activities of the Imunhoe, transforming the organization from a simple literary society into a vanguard for national and women's liberation.

Born in Pyongyang in 1872, Kim Ransa did not give up on her education even after marrying an official, Ha Sang-gi. A famous anecdote tells of how she persuaded Principal Lulu Frey of Ewha Hakdang—which at the time prohibited the admission of married women—by extinguishing a lamp and saying, "My life is as dark as this extinguished lamp. Will you not give me a chance to find the light?". She became widely known as 'Ha Ransa,' a name derived from her husband's surname 'Ha' (河) and a phonetic transcription of her baptismal name, 'Nancy'. However, recent scholarship generally refers to her as 'Kim Ransa,' using her original surname.

In 1906, she earned a Bachelor of Arts degree from Ohio Wesleyan University, becoming the first woman from the Korean Empire to receive a bachelor's degree. After returning to Korea, she dedicated herself to educating the next generation as a teacher and house mother at Ewha Hakdang. In 1907, she took the lead in organizing the Imunhoe, using it as a key platform to instill a sense of national consciousness in her students. Her teachings had a profound impact on her students, and her disciples, including Yu Gwan-sun, later grew to become leaders of the March 1st Movement. It was Kim Ransa's active encouragement that led Yu Gwan-sun to join the Imunhoe and commit herself to the independence movement.

The most striking example of Kim Ransa's progressive thought is her 1911 public debate with Yun Chi-ho, a prominent progressive intellectual of the time. When Yun published an article in the English-language magazine 'The Korea Mission Field' criticizing female education by stating that "new women attending schools do not know how to cook or sew and do not obey their mothers-in-law," Kim Ransa published a rebuttal titled 'A Protest' in the same magazine. In her article, she argued that "in America or Europe, high school graduates do not attend school to become proficient in cooking and sewing," asserting that the goal of higher education for women was to cultivate an intellect equal to that of men, not to produce 'good wives and wise mothers'. This debate was an extension of the discussions Kim Ransa must have had with her students within the Imunhoe, clearly showing the values she sought to instill in them.

Her dedication was not limited to education. As a devout Christian, faith and patriotism were inseparable values for her. In 1919, she was entrusted with the critical mission of serving as a secret envoy to the Paris Peace Conference to proclaim the legitimacy of Korean independence to the world. Tragically, while traveling to carry out her mission, she died under mysterious circumstances in Beijing on March 10, martyring herself for her country.

In conclusion, Kim Ransa was a pivotal figure connecting first-generation Korean feminism and nationalism. For her, women's liberation and national independence were two sides of the same coin. The Imunhoe was her most important educational practice for institutionalizing these two ideals and passing them on to future generations. By teaching her students to think critically and speak confidently in public, she was cultivating modern citizens, feminists, and independence activists all at once. Therefore, the fact that the Imunhoe later became an epicenter of the March 1st Movement can be seen as the fruition of the ideological seeds Kim Ransa had sown over many years.

IV. The Forging of a Voice: The Diverse Activities of the Imunhoe

Over time, the activities of the Imunhoe evolved from simple cultural exchange to intense political debate. This process is a vivid record of how the young women of Ewha Hakdang found their voices and extended them to discuss the fate of their nation.

A. Cultural and Intellectual Activities

In its early days, the Imunhoe's activities consisted of a variety of cultural events focused on applying and expressing the knowledge learned in the curriculum.

• Oratory and Public Speaking: Speeches, debates, and recitations were key activities for breaking the custom of silence imposed on women and building confidence in front of an audience.

• Arts and Performances: Through activities such as musical performances, plays, creative presentations, and even witty storytelling (才談), students cultivated their creativity and collaborative skills.

• Public Presentations: Once a year, the Imunhoe held a large-scale assembly open to the public. These events were so popular that they were attended by students from other schools and figures from all walks of life, serving as an opportunity to showcase the students' talents to society.

B. The Crucible of Consciousness: The Culture of Debate

Particularly noteworthy among the Imunhoe's activities was its culture of debate. These debates were a practical training ground for internalizing modern civic consciousness.

• Democratic Process: Debates followed a democratic procedure: selecting a topic, presenting logical arguments from both pro and con sides, engaging in free discussion, and reaching a conclusion by majority vote. This was more than just public speaking practice; it was a crucial experience in learning rational decision-making.

• Radical Debate Topics: The topics of debate were often radical, challenging the conventional wisdom of the time. Assertions such as "women should be economically independent and not rely on men" and "the custom of confining women to the home based on Confucian values should be criticized" were openly discussed. When a debate was held on the sensitive topic of "whether a wife must maintain her chastity if her husband is imprisoned or exiled," some Confucian scholars even attempted to disrupt the meeting but were thwarted. These debates were radical intellectual practices that questioned the very foundations of the patriarchal social order.

C. National Awakening: From Prayer Meetings to Political Action

The decisive turning point in the character of the Imunhoe was the signing of the Eulsa Treaty in 1905. In the face of this national crisis, the Imunhoe transcended its cultural framework to become a center of political awakening.

• Politicization of Time and Space: After 1905, a new routine took hold at Ewha Hakdang. Every day at 3 PM, all classes would stop, and students, centered around the Imunhoe, would gather for a 'prayer meeting for the independence of the motherland'.

• Current Affairs Debates and Fostering National Consciousness: These prayer meetings gradually evolved into 'current affairs debates' and lecture series featuring invited speakers. These gatherings were conducted with the clear purpose of instilling in students a correct understanding of the pressing political crisis and fostering a sense of national consciousness.

The evolution of the Imunhoe's activities demonstrates a sophisticated strategy of using the relatively safe guise of 'culture' to explore and disseminate radical ideas. 'Literary society' , 'prayer meeting' , and 'debate club' were ostensibly acceptable activities, but their content was a process of political and feminist consciousness-raising that resisted the dual oppression of patriarchy and colonial rule. The Imunhoe was like a laboratory for experimenting with modern Korean identity. By discussing topics such as democratic debate, gender equality, and national sovereignty, these young women were constructing a new identity for themselves: the 'modern, independent Korean female citizen.' The skills they honed here—public speaking, logical argumentation, and organized action—became essential tools for the nationwide independence movement of 1919. As such, the evolution of the Imunhoe was a natural transition from cultural practice to political practice, proving how powerful education and cultural activities themselves can be as political acts for an oppressed nation.

V. The Spark of Independence: The March 1st Movement and the Imunhoe

During the March 1st Movement, the Imunhoe was not merely a participating organization but a central nervous system that played a key role in planning and executing the student movement, especially in the Seoul area. Years of ideological education and organizational training finally culminated in a practice that changed the course of history.

• A Training Ground for Activists, Yu Gwan-sun: The most symbolic figure nurtured by the Imunhoe is undoubtedly Yu Gwan-sun (柳寬順). Enrolling in Ewha Hakdang in 1916, she was an active member of the Imunhoe. The daily 3 PM independence prayer meetings and current affairs debates had a decisive influence on shaping her indomitable will for independence. Besides Yu Gwan-sun, many other students, such as Kim Bun-ok (金粉玉), cultivated their national consciousness through Imunhoe activities.

• Organizing the Movement: The sudden death of Emperor Gojong in January 1919 served as a catalyst for the independence movement. The Imunhoe immediately functioned as the central body for organizing students. Students voluntarily wore mourning clothes and went on strike. On February 28, through a regular Imunhoe meeting, it was resolved that the entire student body of Ewha Hakdang would actively participate in the independence demonstrations.

• At the Forefront of the Protest: On March 1, 1919, members of the Imunhoe stood at the forefront of the protests. Yu Gwan-sun, along with colleagues like Seo Myeong-hak and Kim Bok-sun, organized a 'five-person suicide squad' to lead the demonstrations. They slipped out of their dormitory to join the protest processions at Tapgol Park and on the streets of Jongno.

• Sustained Resistance: The participation of Ewha Hakdang students, organized through the Imunhoe network, did not end on March 1. When it became known that Ewha students would actively participate in the joint student protest on March 5, school authorities locked the gates and mobilized teachers to stop them, but to no avail. Due to the fierce student protests, the Japanese authorities issued a closure order for ten schools, including Ewha Hakdang, on March 10.

• Spreading the Flames of Independence Nationwide: When the school was closed by the order, Imunhoe members like Yu Gwan-sun did not cease their activities but carried the embers of independence to their respective hometowns. Returning to her hometown of Cheonan, Yu Gwan-sun utilized the organizational and oratory skills she had learned at Ewha Hakdang to lead the Aunae Market demonstration on April 1. Her impassioned speech to the crowd gathered at the market—"We must reclaim our country. How can a people without a country be called a people?"—was a manifestation of the national consciousness forged in the Imunhoe.

This series of events shows how effectively the communication and mobilization network established by the Imunhoe among the students operated. The resolution to participate on February 28 was possible because there was a decision-making body recognized as legitimate by the students. In other words, the Imunhoe was the institutional mechanism that converted patriotic sentiment into organized action. Furthermore, the actions of the Imunhoe members symbolize the process by which the intellectual ideal of the 'New Woman' was transformed into a powerful political force. The colonial authorities likely underestimated the political potential of female students compared to their male counterparts. The Imunhoe and its members turned this prejudice to their advantage, using the stereotype of women as passive and obedient as a weapon to play a key role in organizing one of the most important anti-colonial resistance movements in modern Korean history. Their actions were a declaration to the world that Korean women were no longer passive objects of history but active subjects shaping the national narrative.

VI. Legacy and Succession: The Transition to the YWCA and Lasting Influence

The history of the Imunhoe did not end in 1922; rather, its spirit and functions were inherited and evolved into a new stage within the framework of a larger, nationwide organization. The legacy of the Imunhoe left a deep imprint on the subsequent history of the Korean women's movement and student movement.

• Institutional Succession: The Imunhoe continued its activities until 1922. In that same year, the Korean YWCA (Young Women's Christian Association) was founded, with figures like Helen Kim (Kim Hwal-lan), an Ewha alumna who had grown up in the tradition of the Imunhoe, playing key leadership roles.

• Absorption and Development: The Imunhoe was 'developmentally absorbed' into the newly formed YWCA organization. Subsequently, the Ewha YWCA took over the functions and roles that the Imunhoe had performed. This transition signifies that the values and activity models pursued by the Imunhoe expanded beyond the limits of a single school organization to become part of a nationwide and international network. This can be assessed not as the demise of the Imunhoe, but as its successful evolution.

• Lasting Influence: The legacy left by the Imunhoe can be analyzed in three main aspects:

  1. A Model for Student Movements: The Imunhoe created a prototype for student self-governance and political participation. This model later influenced other schools and became an important tradition in the student movement.

  2. Producing Women Leaders: The Imunhoe produced a generation of female leaders who were educated, could articulate their opinions clearly, and possessed political consciousness. They went on to play important roles in women's rights organizations, educational institutions, and the ongoing independence movement.

  3. Fusion of Women's Liberation and Nationalism: The Imunhoe institutionally practiced the idea that women's empowerment and national liberation were two sides of the same struggle. This ideology became a crucial intellectual asset that formed the foundation of the Korean women's movement for decades to come. Although some figures like Kim Hwal-lan later became subjects of controversy for pro-Japanese activities , the historical significance of the fundamental principles established during the Imunhoe period remains untarnished.

The transition from the Imunhoe to the YWCA reflects a general trend in Korean civil society during the 'Cultural Rule' period of the 1920s. That is, small, localized, single-issue groups evolved into nationwide organizations capable of more systematic and sustained activities. The very fact that the Imunhoe's mission had grown too large for a single school club to handle is a testament to its success.

Ultimately, the most important legacy of the Imunhoe lies in the creation of social and intellectual capital. This organization proved that Korean women could organize themselves, articulate a political vision, and implement it with courage and efficiency. This success story inspired the formation of other women's organizations, such as the Geunwoohoe (槿友會), and fundamentally changed the landscape of both the national and women's movements. Therefore, the Imunhoe should not be regarded as a mere footnote in the history of Ewha Hakdang, but as a decisive chapter in the story of how modern Korean civil society was born.

Conclusion

Ewha Hakdang's Imunhoe, born in the turbulent period of early 20th-century Korean society, was a historical entity that transcended the definition of a simple student club. Within the special space of Ewha Hakdang, founded on Christian spirit and modern Western education, the Imunhoe became an experimental ground where Korean women first raised their organized voices and cultivated their capacity for self-governance.

Under the guidance of a pioneering educator, Kim Ransa, the Imunhoe began with literary discussions and artistic activities, gradually evolving into a fierce arena of discourse that debated women's rights, their social roles, and ultimately, the fate of the nation. The independence prayer meetings and current affairs debates held every day at 3 PM after the Eulsa Treaty, in particular, served as a crucible for systematically fostering the students' national consciousness. In this process, the Imunhoe employed a sophisticated strategy of using the guise of cultural activities to resist the dual oppression of colonial rule and patriarchy.

The culmination of its efforts was the March 1st Movement. Drawing on years of accumulated organizational strength and ideology, the Imunhoe became the core driving force that organized and led the participation of Ewha Hakdang students in the protests. The dedicated activities of its members, epitomized by Yu Gwan-sun, proved that the concept of the 'New Woman' was not just an intellectual ideal but a powerful political subject capable of changing the nation's destiny.

Its developmental absorption into the YWCA in 1922 was not the end of the Imunhoe but a successful evolution, expanding its spirit and mission to a national level. The Imunhoe presented a prototype for the student self-governance movement, nurtured a generation of women leaders, and laid the ideological foundation for fusing the two tasks of women's liberation and national independence into one. As such, Ewha Hakdang's Imunhoe occupies an indispensable position in the history of modern Korean women and the independence movement, and its legacy continues to resonate deeply today.