Cha Mi-risa(차미리사): A Journey from 'Empathy' to 'Self-Reliance'

 

Cha Mi-risa's Philosophy and Practice of Women's Education: A Journey from 'Empathy' to 'Self-Reliance'

Executive Summary

In the dark period of Japanese colonial rule, how did one woman's life heal the suffering of countless others and sow the seeds of hope? Cha Mi-risa (車美理士, 1879~1955), in an era where educational opportunities for women were extremely limited, opened new horizons for Korean women's education based on her deep 'empathetic attitude'. With a vision gained from her studies abroad and a fervent love for her homeland, she shifted her focus from the national restoration movement to women's education, forging her own unique path.   

Her educational philosophy manifested in heartfelt appeals such as "All ten million women of Joseon, come to me," which became a seed of healing and change for women in despair. Her journey, starting from the Buin Yahak Gangseupso (Women's Night School) and progressing through Geunhwa Academy, Geunhwa Girls' School, and finally to Duksung Girls' Vocational School (the predecessor of today's Duksung Women's University), shines as the unparalleled success story of a female intellectual who transformed non-formal educational institutions into regular schools. This development was the result of her unwavering will, her foresight, and her wise response to Japanese cultural policies and the practical demands of society. She pursued true liberation and improved social status for women through economic self-reliance, and this noble spirit has been inherited as the founding philosophy of Duksung Women's University, living on to this day. This report deeply analyzes how Cha Mi-risa's educational philosophy and practice originated from her personal hardships, evolved in response to the demands of her time, and how the practical compromises and future-oriented vision that emerged during this process positively transformed the lives of countless women.   

I. Introduction

A. Cha Mi-risa: A Pioneer of Her Time, How Did She Overcome Adversity?

Cha Mi-risa, born in 1879 and living until 1955, left an indelible mark on women's education throughout the tumultuous modern history of Korea. She was a 'new woman' who studied in China and the United States, participated in the national restoration movement in the U.S. during the late Joseon period, but after the loss of national sovereignty in 1910, she dedicated herself to women's education as an educator. Interestingly, she was sometimes referred to as Kim Mi-risa, adopting her husband's surname, but she reaffirmed her identity by reverting to her birth name, Cha Mi-risa, in 1936.   

Cha Mi-risa's most distinctive achievement was establishing and operating women's educational institutions with the strength of Korean women during the challenging period of Japanese colonial rule, and fostering their growth. She began by establishing the Buin Yahak Gangseupso (Women's Night School) with her colleagues from the Joseon Women's Education Association, then progressed to Geunhwa Girls' School, a special-purpose school offering daytime education, and finally developed it into Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School, a regular commercial school with a foundation. This school was renamed Duksung Girls' Vocational School in 1938, becoming the predecessor of today's Duksung Women's University. Her accomplishment is even more remarkable given that she was the only female intellectual during the Japanese colonial period, a mere impoverished teacher, who managed to establish and operate a regular girls' secondary educational institution approved by the Governor-General.   

Beyond merely establishing schools, it is crucial to examine Cha Mi-risa's evolving perception of reality, her views on women's education, and the shifting focus of her educational projects in response to changing times. The fact that her educational philosophy and the direction of her education (curriculum) changed as her perception of reality evolved is particularly noteworthy. Furthermore, studying Cha Mi-risa's discussions and activities in women's education holds significant meaning in understanding the post-return trends and activities of female intellectuals who studied abroad during the Japanese colonial period.   

B. Background, Purpose, and Structure of the Report

Existing research has primarily focused on Cha Mi-risa's educational activities, highlighting their nature as general and vocational education, as well as their role in the national education and women's liberation movements. However, these studies have limitations as they have not sufficiently focused on how her discussions and projects in women's education transformed in response to changing circumstances, societal demands, and her evolving perception of reality. Specifically, they have failed to illuminate her attempts to establish women's specialized (higher) education programs centered on English and music, and, in the same vein, her consideration of establishing humanities-focused girls' high schools (secondary education programs). Furthermore, there has been insufficient analysis of her decision to shift the focus of women's education from general education to secondary education, anticipating future changes in educational demand, even when the majority of women were still illiterate, and how public opinion (newspaper articles) reacted to this.   

This report aims to overcome the limitations of existing research by deeply exploring Cha Mi-risa's 'empathetic attitude' and specific quotes and emotional anecdotes such as "All ten million women of Joseon, come to me." It seeks to analyze how these elements are closely connected to her personal experiences, evolving educational philosophy, and strategic approach to developing institutions within the realities of colonial rule. In particular, it will clearly illuminate the process by which her educational endeavors, starting from the women's night school, underwent various attempts and changes, eventually settling as a regular secondary commercial education institution through compromise with reality. Additionally, it will examine how her educational activities responded to the social demands and expectations of her time, as reflected in media reactions.   

This report is structured into five main sections, focusing on Cha Mi-risa's personal motivations, popular appeal, the development process of her educational institutions, the deepening of her educational philosophy, and her lasting legacy. Through this, it aims to contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted meaning and complex nature of Cha Mi-risa's women's educational activities.

II. Cha Mi-risa's 'Empathetic Attitude' and the Roots of Her Educational Philosophy: How Did Her Life Become the Seed of Women's Education?

A. Personal Experience and Perception of Women's Reality: The Power of Empathy Born from Hardship

1. Childhood and Life as a Young Widow: Discovering Hope Beyond Despair

Cha Mi-risa's educational philosophy, particularly her 'empathetic attitude,' is deeply rooted in her personal life experiences. At the tender age of 19, she suffered the tragedy of losing her husband and becoming a young widow. In Joseon society at that time, becoming a widow meant a woman was "half-crippled," destined to live a "most miserable" and arduous life. Cha Mi-risa herself recalled living in such despair.   

However, attending Sangdong Church and converting to Christianity became a turning point in her life. Christianity gave her hope and the strength to live again, which later became a crucial catalyst for her to discover her mission as an educator and dedicate herself to helping unfortunate women. This personal experience of suffering and overcoming it formed the foundation for the deep empathy in her educational activities. Her direct experience of pain and her journey out of it were not merely personal anecdotes but the source of her 'empathetic attitude,' truly understanding and sympathizing with the despair and marginalization faced by countless Korean women. It was this personal connection that gave her a powerful impetus for her mission in women's education. Furthermore, the fact that Cha Mi-risa overcame the personal challenge of hearing impairment and devoted herself to educational activities further highlights her strong will and deep understanding of others' suffering.   

2. Study in the U.S. and Observation of Advanced Women's Societies: Expanding the Vision for Healing and Change

Cha Mi-risa left for China to study in 1901, and then moved to the United States in 1905, where she participated in independence movements such as the Daedong Bogukhoe (Great Unity Patriotic Association) and Daedong Gyoyukhoe (Great Unity Education Association) while earning her tuition until 1910. However, upon facing the reality of national sovereignty loss in 1910, she decided to cease her national restoration efforts and set a new goal: 'to take up the teaching profession for the women's society of our country and lead them to a bright society.' This signified her acceptance of the nation's demise and her shift in focus from the independence movement to women's education, which was a realistically feasible part of the 'self-strengthening movement.'   

Her experiences in the United States profoundly influenced her educational endeavors. She remarked, "What I felt most strongly when I was in the land of gold, the land of freedom, America, was the passion for social work among women in that country. I was astonished by its thoroughness and vast scope, and at the same time, I wondered when Joseon women would ever be able to do such things. However, upon reflection, I realized that their advanced culture was achieved through effort and intellect. Therefore, I believed that if our Joseon women possessed these two qualities, they could achieve anything. After returning to my homeland, I soon began the work I am currently engaged in, seeking to put into practice what I felt in America." This observation, beyond her personal empathy, provided a concrete 'blueprint' for women to exercise their social capabilities. In other words, beyond merely sympathizing with suffering, she found systematic solutions for suffering women in education, drawing from the models of women's social activities she witnessed in advanced societies.   

Furthermore, in 1908, she organized and served as president of the Korean Women's Association in San Francisco, and was involved in the publication of 『Daedong Gongbo』, the official organ of the Daedong Bogukhoe, gaining extensive organizational and leadership experience within the Korean diaspora in the U.S. These experiences served as the foundation for her to organize the Joseon Women's Education Association and acquire and publish the magazine 『Yeoja Siron』 (Women's Discourse) upon her return to Korea in 1920.   

B. Empathy for Unfortunate and Marginalized Women: How Did Her Heart felt Empathy Blossom into Hope?

1. Women's Suffering as a Social Problem: The Unignorable Reality of Pain

Upon her return to Korea, while working as a teacher at Baehwa Girls' School, Cha Mi-risa keenly felt that "if Joseon women are to live happily like men, they must, above all, learn." Especially in the 1920s, there were frequent cases of husbands abusing or demanding divorce from their wives simply because they were 'ignorant.' Indeed, the Joseon Women's Education Association received tearful appeals from over 300 "sobaekdeogi" (abandoned women), indicating that the issue of divorce among married men had become a serious social problem.   

Cha Mi-risa diagnosed the "cause of marital discord and divorce as women's lack of knowledge." She argued that the 'meaning and necessity of women's education' lay in correcting the imbalance in gender relations, which should function like two wheels of a cart in society. From this perspective, women's education was essential for creating 'harmonious families and society.' She did not simply dismiss women's personal suffering—such as divorce, widowhood, and spousal abuse—as individual misfortunes. Instead, she redefined them as 'social problems' stemming from a lack of education. This redefinition of the problem played a crucial role in publicly persuading people of the necessity of women's education and in making it recognized as an essential task for the overall development of society, rather than merely an act of personal charity.   

2. Vision of Healing and Change Through Education: Her Promise That Wiped Away Tears of Despair

Cha Mi-risa emphasized that the ultimate way to resolve the oppression and suffering experienced by women lay in women's education. She often began her nationwide lecture tours with the following emotional and direct appeal:   

"All ten million women of Joseon, come to me. Come to Kim Mi-risa. Women abandoned by their husbands, women who have become widows, women oppressed by their husbands, women who cannot fulfill their roles in lowly positions, ignorant women who cannot see even with open eyes—all of you, come, and I will show your dark eyes the light, and I will make your divorced husbands return. Just come, all you suffering women."   

This appeal went beyond mere literacy, including a radical promise to bring back divorced husbands, directly addressing women's most desperate personal pains. This stemmed from her deep empathy and conveyed a powerful message that education could bring about fundamental changes in life, not just the acquisition of knowledge.   

By 1922, Cha Mi-risa's logic had further developed. She asserted, "We do not idly cry out for liberation, equality, or freedom. We only wish for women to be educated, to complete their individual personalities, and to seize liberation and freedom with their own hands, not passively receiving liberation and freedom given by men without any ability." This was an active message emphasizing that the improvement of women's rights and gender equality begins with women's education, and that women themselves must awaken to their 'dignity and worth as human beings' and cultivate 'ability' through education to achieve 'liberation and freedom.'   

This message is also clearly evident in another lecture phrase: "We are human. Women are human. If we are human, we must live a human life, and to live a human life, first we must know and learn. The old-fashioned era of being men's playthings and men's slaves has long passed." Cha Mi-risa sought to lead women beyond the emotional threshold of immediate personal suffering, to a stage where they could realize their fundamental human dignity and self-reliance through education. This emphasized that women's liberation was not something to be granted from outside, but a task to be achieved by strengthening inner capabilities through education.   

III. 'All Ten Million Women of Joseon, Come to Me': Emotional Appeal and the Spread of National Education, How Did Her Words Heal Countless Lives?

A. Background and Purpose of the Nationwide Lecture Tour: How Did She Reach Out to Women in Despair?

1. Founding of the Joseon Women's Education Association and Enlightenment Movement: The Spark of Education Illuminating the Darkness

In March 1920, Cha Mi-risa witnessed the heightened 'passion for learning' after the March 1st Independence Movement and organized the Joseon Women's Education Association with her female colleagues. As a major undertaking of this organization, she established the Buin Yahak Gangseupso (Women's Night School) and acquired and published the magazine 『Yeoja Siron』 (Women's Discourse), laying the groundwork for the women's enlightenment movement.   

Subsequently, in 1921, under Cha Mi-risa's leadership, the Joseon Women's Education Association led women's lecture groups throughout the country, conducting enlightenment and fundraising campaigns. This was the first nationwide women's lecture tour activity. This lecture group traveled to over 70 cities across the country, engaging in a large-scale enlightenment movement to educate women. These nationwide lecture tours were more than just educational activities; they were a strategic move to effectively mobilize and organize the public's desire for education that had erupted after the March 1st Movement. Cha Mi-risa accurately read the trends of the times and actively embraced the social demand for women's education, thereby succeeding in expanding the movement.   

2. Activities Under Japanese Cultural Rule: A Wise Strategy That Blossomed Amidst Adversity

Cha Mi-risa's educational endeavors were closely related to the 'Cultural Rule' policy of the Joseon Government-General in the 1920s. As the Japanese colonial administration shifted from military rule to cultural rule after the March 1st Independence Movement, an environment was created where lecture tours and the establishment of private night schools became relatively easier.   

The activities of the Joseon Women's Education Association received unusually high attention from its inception, being reported in detail not only by major newspapers like 『Joseon Ilbo』 and 『Dong-A Ilbo』 but also by 『Maeil Shinbo』, which had a strong character as a government-controlled media supporting the Governor-General's rule. This suggests that the Joseon Government-General viewed Cha Mi-risa's educational work as a moderate educational movement aligned with its cultural rule policy in the 1920s and actively supported it through 『Maeil Shinbo』. This trend is also evident in the cooperative response of local police stations during the Joseon Women's Education Association's lecture tour in 1921. Cha Mi-risa and her colleagues were only instructed to avoid certain songs or change lyrics, but their lectures were never stopped, and they even received farewells from Japanese police chiefs when leaving a region.   

This stands in stark contrast to the situation in 1920 when the seven-member evangelist group led by Kim Hwal-lan aimed for a nationwide lecture tour but often failed to obtain permits for gatherings or had their lectures interrupted, eventually being forced to abandon their schedule due to Japanese pressure. This comparison shows that Cha Mi-risa's Joseon Women's Education Association received relatively significant preferential treatment from the Japanese authorities. Cha Mi-risa utilized these loopholes in 'cultural rule' to pursue her nationalistic ideals while also demonstrating a pragmatic approach to ensuring the survival and growth of educational institutions within realistic constraints. This can be seen as the result of a strategic judgment to prepare for the nation's future by strengthening internal capabilities rather than engaging in direct confrontation.   

B. The Emotional Power and Popular Impact of the Quotation: How Did Her Words Heal Countless Lives?

1. Direct Appeal to Suffering Women: A Desperate Cry, Deep Empathy

Cha Mi-risa's lectures possessed a powerful emotional appeal that captivated her audience from the very beginning. The passage she often used to open her lectures—"All ten million women of Joseon, come to me. Come to Kim Mi-risa. Women abandoned by their husbands, women who have become widows, women oppressed by their husbands, women who cannot fulfill their roles in lowly positions, ignorant women who cannot see even with open eyes—all of you, come, and I will show your dark eyes the light, and I will make your divorced husbands return. Just come, all you suffering women." —clearly articulated the specific and everyday sufferings experienced by women at the time, fostering deep empathy.   

This appeal went beyond mere literacy or knowledge transfer, giving the impression of offering solutions to the most pressing problems faced by women, such as divorce, widowhood, and spousal abuse. In particular, the radical promise to "make your divorced husbands return" dramatically illustrated the immediate and tangible changes education could bring to an individual's life, delivering a powerful message of hope to suffering women. Cha Mi-risa emphasized that the way to resolve the oppression and suffering women endured lay in women's education, thereby making education perceived not merely as academic achievement but as an act directly linked to salvation in life. This approach was highly effective in lowering the barrier to education and encouraging participation among the majority of women who were marginalized from educational opportunities at the time.   

2. Message of Hope and Self-Reliance Through Education: From Healing to a Self-Determined Life

Cha Mi-risa's message initially focused on improving family life and marital harmony, but gradually expanded to encompass women's self-reliance and the establishment of their subjectivity. From 1922 onwards, she asserted, "We do not idly cry out for liberation, equality, or freedom. We only wish for women to be educated, to complete their individual personalities, and to seize liberation and freedom with their own hands, not passively receiving liberation and freedom given by men without any ability." This clearly demonstrated her conviction that the improvement of women's rights and gender equality begins with women's education.   

Furthermore, in her lectures, she passionately urged women to recognize their human dignity and self-awareness, stating, "We are human. Women are human. If we are human, we must live a human life, and to live a human life, first we must know and learn. The old-fashioned era of being men's playthings and men's slaves has long passed." This message encouraged women not only to acquire knowledge but also to shed their dependence on men, to awaken to their 'dignity and worth as human beings' and their 'grave responsibilities as homemakers,' and to become self-reliant individuals. Cha Mi-risa used emotional appeals to draw women into the realm of education, but ultimately, she had a deeper goal of helping them overcome personal suffering and grow into social agents. For her, education was both a means of healing individual lives and, more fundamentally, the first step towards women's liberation and gender equality.   

C. Media and Social Response: Why Did the Era Respond to Her Call?

Cha Mi-risa's educational activities and the nationwide lecture tour of the Joseon Women's Education Association received a highly favorable response from the media and society of the time. Major newspapers like 『Dong-A Ilbo』 and 『Joseon Ilbo』 encouraged the members of the Joseon Women's Education Association as "revolutionaries of the Joseon women's world," expressing great expectations that they would strive to spread knowledge and culture, "acquire the qualifications of wise mothers and good wives, and even campaign for suffrage to stand shoulder to shoulder with Western women's movements."   

In particular, the Buin Yahak Gangseupso (Women's Night School) was highly praised for its significance, being described as "a new sprout that improves family life, develops Joseon society's civilization, and promotes women's liberation and complete happiness." 『Dong-A Ilbo』 lauded the Joseon Women's Education Association's lecture tour as a "timely lecture" and a "cultural propaganda movement for the ten million women of Joseon." Such media reactions demonstrate that Cha Mi-risa accurately grasped the needs of society and the changes of the times, and accordingly developed her educational endeavors.   

Despite women's education not being common at the time, Cha Mi-risa's lectures utilized popular elements, such as incorporating performances during educational sessions, to attract people's interest. Thanks to these efforts, many who attended the lectures were said to have "begun to be reborn as women of a new era," indicating a significant popular impact. The overwhelming support from the media and society signifies that Cha Mi-risa's educational initiative not only reflected a personal vision but also precisely met the widespread desire for women's enlightenment and empowerment that emerged after the March 1st Movement. By effectively capturing and representing the collective aspiration for progress and change budding among Korean women, she established herself as one of the most influential female leaders of her time.   

IV. Development of Women's Educational Projects and Practical Compromises: How Did She Find Her Way Amidst the Waves of Change?

A. From Buin Yahak Gangseupso to Geunhwa Academy: A Miracle Born from a Small Night School, How Did It Grow?

1. Founding Background and Initial Educational Goals: The First Step for the Suffering

The Buin Yahak Gangseupso (Women's Night School), established by Cha Mi-risa in 1920, aimed to 'improve the family life of old-fashioned housewives through women's education.' At this time, Cha Mi-risa's goal for women's education was 'to enable women who could not attend school due to lack of tuition or who were too old to enroll, to at least read a letter or a newspaper.' This was the most urgent and basic educational goal, considering the reality that the majority of women at the time were illiterate.   

Cha Mi-risa took great pride in this endeavor, stating that it was "established by purely gathering the strength of Koreans to create a women's educational institution." She held the conviction that "one should never work for a salary under others. Nor should one lack economic power," and thus sought to pursue educational work with the strength of Koreans themselves, without the help of foreign missionaries. This demonstrates her firm belief that it should be 'education by Koreans for Koreans.'   

2. Concurrent Day and Night Classes and Expansion of Educational Scope: Opening the Door of Hope Wider

The Buin Yahak Gangseupso achieved remarkable development within 2-3 years of its establishment. The number of students rapidly increased to the point where the Cheongjin-dong house became too small within a year and a half, necessitating plans for fundraising to expand the school, dormitory, and hall. Driven by this growth, in April 1922, a 'day class' was newly established in addition to the existing night class program. The day class primarily operated as a preparatory course for the Gyeongseong Girls' High School entrance examination, responding to the strong demand from female students who faced difficulties entering secondary educational institutions due to a shortage of schools.   

In 1923, the institute was renamed 'Geunhwa Academy' and operated both day and night classes concurrently. This was a transitional form until 1925 when Geunhwa Girls' School was approved as a special-purpose school and shifted to primarily day classes. The establishment of day classes at the institute meant an expansion of the target audience. Educational opportunities for women were extended not only to housewives who could only attend night classes due to household chores during the day but also to women (both wives and girls) who could attend day classes without being restricted by traditional gender segregation laws. This rapid expansion demonstrates how sensitively Cha Mi-risa responded to the changing educational demands of society at the time and how flexibly she adjusted the institution's structure and the educational content provided accordingly. This played a crucial role in maintaining the school's continuous growth and social relevance.   

B. Geunhwa Girls' School's Educational Experiments and Search for Transition: Amidst the Waves of Change, How Did She Find Her Way?

1. Attempts at Humanities Secondary Education and Specialized Education: A Challenge Towards Higher Dreams

In September 1925, Geunhwa Academy, which had ordinary and advanced courses (secondary education), received approval from the Governor-General as Geunhwa Girls' School, a special-purpose school. While this meant the abolition of the night school program, the spirit of the Buin Yahak (Women's Night School) was somewhat continued as there were almost no age restrictions for admission to the ordinary course. At this time, Cha Mi-risa sought to strengthen humanities secondary education at Geunhwa Girls' School in response to the practical demand for admission to secondary educational institutions, including girls' high schools. Just three months after Geunhwa Girls' School received its approval, in December 1925, she even contemplated 'upgrading' the advanced course of Geunhwa Girls' School to a 'girls' high school.' This might have been influenced by Baehwa Girls' School, where she had previously worked, which was upgraded to Baehwa Girls' High School in 1925.   

Cha Mi-risa was also actively involved in establishing specialized education programs. In March 1924, she established a music department as a specialized education program for students who had completed secondary education. This was a groundbreaking attempt, as it was the first specialized music education program established at a level higher than secondary education, preceding the establishment of Ewha Women's Professional School's music department (approved in 1925) by one year. She aimed to create a three-year specialized department for music and English, and in 1930 and 1932, she even invited renowned music professionals as teachers to promote the music department. These attempts demonstrate that Cha Mi-risa did not merely confine herself to general education but continuously explored the possibilities of higher education for women's intellectual and artistic development. This aligned with the progressive educational ideals of the time.   

The following tables show the trends in humanities secondary education and English and music classes at Geunhwa Girls' School.

<Table 1: Trends in Geunhwa Girls' School's Humanities Secondary Education Curriculum>   

Year	Course	Source
1922.4	New establishment of Girls' Day School (preparatory course for Girls' High School, 1st year, for next year's entrance exam)	Maeil Shinbo 1922.4.13
1922.10	Two classes, morning and afternoon, recruiting 100 students	Yeoseong 1922.10
1923.3	20 students enrolled in Girls' High School preparatory class	Joseon Ilbo, Maeil Shinbo 1923.3.11
1924.3	10 graduates from preparatory class (students who completed preparatory class and will enter higher schools)	Maeil Shinbo 1924.3.13
1925.3	New establishment of Geunhwa Academy Day School Department, 50 students to be recruited for Day School preparatory class / 50 students to be recruited for Night School High School entrance preparatory course / Expansion of preparatory course content / 50 students to be recruited for preparatory course, 12 years or older, ordinary school 4th grade graduate level (regular ordinary school was 6-year system at the time) / Advanced course planned as 2-year program (accelerated course of 4-year Girls' High School, graduation ceremony every 6 months)	Joseon Ilbo 1925.3.3 /3.14, Dong-A Ilbo 1925.3.20
1925.8.29	Geunhwa Girls' School (special-purpose school) approved, ordinary and advanced courses established.	Joseon Ilbo 1925.8.30
1925.12	Planning to be approved as a Girls' High School in 1926	Joseon Ilbo 1925.12.18
1926.2~	50 students to be recruited for 1st year of advanced course, 12 years or older	Dong-A Ilbo 1926.2.11
1927.3	12 graduates from 1st advanced course. Career paths: 4 to Jungang Kindergarten Teacher Training, 1 to Japan Women's Medical College, 6 to homemaking, etc.	Joseon Ilbo 1927.3.5
1928.3	11 graduates from 2nd advanced course	Joseon Ilbo 1928.3.25
1928.9	15 graduates from 3rd advanced course	Joseon Ilbo 1928.9.22
1929.3	6 graduates from 4th advanced course, all planning to advance to higher schools	Joseon Ilbo 1929.3.17
1929.10	7 graduates from 5th advanced course, planning to advance to higher schools such as Ewha Women's College	Joseon Ilbo 1929.10.1
1930.2	9 graduates from 6th advanced course, almost all planning to advance to higher schools	Joseon Ilbo 1930.2.9
1932.3	28 graduates from 9th secondary course, 80 graduates from secondary course up to 8th, 20 graduates from 11th advanced course <Differences in graduation count, course names, and number of graduates depending on newspaper articles>	Joseon Ilbo 1932.1.27, Maeil Shinbo 1932.3.15
1932.7	70 students enrolled in 2 advanced classes (1st, 2nd year or 4-semester course), 200 graduates from advanced course to date	Shin Dong-A 1932.7
1933.3	Advanced course abolished, new vocational course established, recruiting 60 students	Dong-A Ilbo 1933.2.25
1934.2	18 graduates from advanced course (8 to higher education, 7 to homemaking, 3 to employment planned), 50 students to be recruited for Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School	Joseon Ilbo 1935.2.8

<Table 2: Trends in English and Music Classes>   

Year	English Class	Music Class	Source
1920	English taught in special night school class	Music taught in special night school class	Maeil Shinbo 1920.5.13
1922	English class	Music class	Buin 1922.10
1923.3	English course. 30 students to be recruited for night school English class		Maeil Shinbo 1923.3.11, Joseon Ilbo 1923.11
1924.3	Expansion of English course content	New establishment of Geunhwa Academy Music Department, vocal and instrumental music to be taught, Geunhwa Choir and Opera Troupe to be organized	Maeil Shinbo 1924.3.13
1924.12	English department expansion planned	Music department expansion planned	Joseon Ilbo 1924.12.21, Joseon Ilbo 1925.1.1
1925.3	English course planned as 3-year specialized department, recruiting 30 students	Music course planned as 3-year specialized department, recruiting 30 students	Joseon Ilbo 1925.3.3
1926.3	New establishment of foreign language department (language course, foreign language institute) as special course in May, specialized education in English and Japanese / English class 1st year beginner, 2nd year Girls' High School graduate, Japanese class ordinary school 6th grade graduate level to be recruited	1926.3 Special course, 50 students to be recruited for 1st year of music class	Dong-A Ilbo 1926.2.11, Joseon Ilbo 1926.3.23
1926.5	Class to open if 25 students gather / Also German, Russian, world languages planned / Class hours 4:30 PM for 3 hours daily		Maeil Shinbo 1926.4.14
1928.7		2 graduates from 1st music class (2-year course) (majoring in vocal, piano)	Maeil Shinbo 1928.7.8
1929.2		Music workshop planned during summer vacation	Ilbo 1930.3.6
1930.3		50 students to be recruited for 1st year of music class / Vocalist Chae Gyu-yeop, pianist Lee Gwang-jun invited as teachers for music class	Jungang Ilbo 1932.3.24
1932.3		Yu Su-man, piano major from Mujangya Music School, invited	Joseon
1932.7		6 students enrolled in 2 music classes (2-year course)	Shin Dong-A 1932.7

2. Changing Educational Direction with the Demands of the Times: A Wise Decision That Read the Future

Cha Mi-risa's pioneering attempts at specialized English and music education, though groundbreaking, did not achieve significant success due to difficulties in student recruitment, issues with Governor-General approval, and a lack of practical utility for employment or household management. In 1932, only 6 students were enrolled in the music department across both first and second years, indicating low student interest. This is attributed to the fact that Japanese was more essential and practical than English under Japanese rule at the time, and specialized education programs at formally recognized schools like Ewha Women's Professional School had a greater influence on student enrollment trends.   

Amidst these practical constraints, Cha Mi-risa decided around 1929 that it was necessary to change the target audience and nature of Geunhwa Girls' School. She predicted that "in just 10 years, educational institutions of a transitional nature for housewives would become unnecessary," a forecast based on the expectation that general education would become somewhat widespread due to the active rural enlightenment and literacy campaigns across the country at the time. Although this prediction might have been somewhat optimistic given that the majority of Korean women were still illiterate, her idea served as a catalyst for her to concretize her plan to transform Geunhwa Girls' School into a vocational school for women.   

The arrival of Governor-General Ugaki Kazushige in 1931, who advocated 'labor-oriented education' with the motto 'education is life, life is labor,' also bolstered Cha Mi-risa's transition. Ugaki emphasized vocational education in elementary and secondary schools and adopted a policy of not approving new secondary schools unless they were vocational schools, except for special reasons. As Japanese educational policy shifted towards actively promoting vocational education, transitioning to a vocational school became a more realistic and feasible path to obtaining official approval as a regular educational institution.   

Cha Mi-risa emphasized 'practical education,' arguing, "What's the use of learning letters? Letters don't give you food, and books don't give you a home. If it's not practical education for stable living, it's not true teaching for Joseon." She believed that given the reality of many female students returning to their homes after graduation and the severe unemployment at the time, school education should focus on 'things related to real life, things that can help one secure a livelihood through employment,' rather than theory. She also stressed the necessity of vocational education for women's economic independence, asserting, "Do not be an appendage to men," and "Do not play the role of a parasite, do not be called weak."   

She believed that "women's liberation is only possible when women have jobs and can control their own lives." Her core argument was that for women to achieve gender equality and secure their social status, their economic independence in the home and society must come first. This shift in perspective demonstrates Cha Mi-risa's future-oriented strategic thinking, as she flexibly adjusted the direction of education to realize her ideals for women's education within the constraints of reality. She seized the opportunity presented by the Governor-General's policy changes and the nation's economic difficulties to shift towards education for women's practical self-reliance.   

C. Establishment as Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School and Renaming to Duksung Girls' Vocational School: The Fruit of Overcoming Adversity, Blossoming into Duksung

1. Promotion to a Regular Secondary Vocational Education Institution: A Firm Step Towards Success

In accordance with this shift in her perception of reality and women's educational philosophy, Cha Mi-risa began to actively pursue her plan to transform Geunhwa Girls' School into a vocational school for women. In 1933, she established a vocational department at Geunhwa Girls' School and abolished the existing ordinary and advanced courses. Subsequently, in 1934, she received approval for the establishment of a foundation and renamed the school Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School, and in 1935, it received approval from the Governor-General as a three-year Class B commercial school.   

This transformation signified that Cha Mi-risa's women's educational endeavors, having undergone numerous educational experiments in response to the changing times and societal demands, had settled as Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School, a secondary vocational education institution offering daytime classes and officially recognized for its academic credentials. This represented a significant leap forward from the one-year commercial course briefly attempted by Cha Mi-risa and the Joseon Women's Education Association between 1922 and 1924 for graduates of ordinary schools or ordinary education courses, and a return to commercial education aimed at training professional women for the workforce.   

The media generally praised Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School as 'suitable for the times, focusing on training professional women and providing practical education' and 'offering vocational education more necessary than general education, in response to the new demands of Joseon women.' In particular, it was highly regarded as 'a new stage in Joseon women's education,' and its 'education policy aligned with real life,' which aimed to provide Joseon women with the most essential practical knowledge for their lives, was welcomed. Overall, the media's tone emphasized the significance of Geunhwa Girls' School in contributing to the expansion of women's general education without age restrictions, while also positively evaluating the transition to Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School as a 'historical inevitability due to the changes of the times.'  

Table 3: Evolution of Vocational Education: Commercial and Homemaking Courses

Year	Sewing, Handicraft, Technical Skills	Commercial Course	Source
1922.1	New establishment of Sewing Department, Western Clothing Course within Joseon Women's Education Association		Maeil Shinbo 1922.1.30
1922.10	Plan to expand handicraft department during handicraft class operation		Buin 1922.10
1922.11		New establishment of Commercial Course, 1-year program, recruiting about 20 students, ordinary school graduate level, 3 hours from 5:30 PM	Dong-A Ilbo 1922.11.7
1923.3	Sewing class	About 20 commercial students enrolled	Maeil Shinbo, Joseon Ilbo 1923.3.11
1924.3		1st Commercial Course graduation ceremony. Expansion of commercial course content.	Maeil Shinbo 1924.3.13
1925.3	New establishment of sewing course or sewing department (6-month program) recruiting		Dong-A Ilbo 1925.3.20
1926.1	Plan to establish vocational education institution	Plan to establish vocational education institution	Dong-A Ilbo 1926.1.3
1926.6	New establishment of technical skills course (knitting, sewing, embroidery), 6-month program, 15 years or older, ordinary school 2nd-4th grade level		Sidae Ilbo 1926.5.28
1929.9	Plan to expand to technical skills professional school	Plan to convert to women's vocational school	Jungoe Ilbo 1929.9.21
1931		Attempt to approve women's vocational school	Joseon Ilbo 1932.1.27
1932.1		Plan to establish foundation for women's vocational school approval	Joseon Ilbo 1932.1.27
1932.4		Application for approval of Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School Foundation, premised on establishment of commercial and homemaking courses	Jungang Ilbo 1932.3.20
1933.2		Plan to divide vocational course into commercial and homemaking courses	Joseon Ilbo 1933.2.17
1933.3		Approval for new establishment of vocational course	Dong-A Ilbo 1933.3.11
1934.2		Approval for establishment of Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School Foundation	Joseon Ilbo 1934.2.11
1935.2		Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School approved	Dong-A Ilbo 1935.2.22

  

The above quotation reports that Cha Mi-risa sought to change the school's nature, format, and content as the number of students at Geunhwa Girls' School decreased. However, even in 1932, the number of graduates from the ordinary course (40 students) and the advanced course (29 students) was not small. Therefore, the media's report that Geunhwa Girls' School abolished its ordinary and advanced courses and transitioned to a vocational course due to a decrease in student numbers is logically inconsistent. This suggests that the media represented the school's and Cha Mi-risa's positions to justify the transition to Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School. If Geunhwa Girls' School had remained a special-purpose school, even with issues in academic recognition, it could have accommodated a large number of students (about 150 students, with actual enrollment around 100) by recruiting 50 students for the ordinary course, 50 for the advanced course, and 30-50 for the music course at the start of each semester, thus opening the door to learning for many. Furthermore, if short-term 6-month vocational education courses like sewing or photography were included, the number of beneficiaries could have increased even further. In contrast, after becoming a girls' vocational school, it could only accommodate 180 students in a 3-year commercial secondary education program, meaning only 60 new students could be admitted each year. In short, the total number of students (new admissions and enrolled students) decreased when Geunhwa Girls' School, a special-purpose school, became a regular school, Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School.

Furthermore, the approval of Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School meant the abolition of the advanced, ordinary, and music courses. The school's educational system, which previously included kindergarten, elementary, secondary, and specialized (higher) education, was transformed into a single secondary vocational education system, becoming a girls' secondary vocational school. This eliminated the characteristics of Geunhwa Girls' School, such as being a women's general education institution without age restrictions and offering all levels of education. In the reality of Korean society, where 90% of the female population was illiterate, the original educational role of providing educational opportunities to married women who had missed the school age disappeared. Therefore, while Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School achieved qualitative improvements in terms of official academic recognition, focus on secondary education, strengthening of vocational education, and promotion to a regular school compared to its predecessor (Geunhwa Girls' School), the scale and scope of its educational target audience quantitatively decreased significantly.

The transition to Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School signified a shift in women's education theory from the 'housewife education theory' of the Buin Yahak Gangseupso era, which aimed to improve the family life of old-fashioned housewives by teaching them literacy and general knowledge, to a 'girls' education theory' that focused on secondary vocational education and the training of professional women. The focus of women's education shifted from housewives to girls, from non-formal education to formal education, from general education to secondary education, and from various educational attempts to vocational education. Amidst these changes, her philosophy of women's education, which emphasized women's economic independence for the advancement of women's rights, and her vocational education philosophy remained consistent. While still emphasizing women's education for improving living standards, she placed more emphasis on vocational education and secondary education for girls than on general education for housewives. Cha Mi-risa stated in newspapers that she decided to transition to a regular secondary vocational school for girls based on her judgment that women's general education had become somewhat widespread. However, Cha Mi-risa had already attempted specialized education programs, including secondary vocational education and humanities secondary education, in women's education. Furthermore, in the 1930s, the majority of Korean women were still illiterate. In response, social movements such as the Joseon Ilbo's literacy campaign, the Dong-A Ilbo's Vnarod movement, rural enlightenment movements, Hangeul literacy campaigns, and illiteracy eradication movements were underway. Therefore, Cha Mi-risa's explanation for the change in Geunhwa Girls' School's character lacks persuasiveness. Rather, the establishment of Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School was a realistic response by Cha Mi-risa, considering the qualitative improvement of women's education through promotion to a regular school, her women's education philosophy which aimed to focus on secondary vocational education and homemaking education for girls, the Japanese Governor-General's education policy which only allowed the establishment and approval of vocational schools as regular schools, and the global Great Depression and economic hardship and unemployment of the 1930s.

Thus, Cha Mi-risa achieved the remarkable feat of developing a night school into a regular secondary school within 14 years of establishing the Buin Yahak Gangseupso. The approval of Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School was significant in that women's education, which had grown from a non-formal women's night school, progressed to the next stage and became a regular secondary vocational education institution with a foundation. Previously, Geunhwa Girls' School was a special-purpose school (miscellaneous school) that provided accelerated education for half the duration of a regular educational institution, making it a non-formal educational institution. The approval of Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School fulfilled her long-cherished desire to establish and operate Geunhwa Girls' School as a regular school. She felt proud of the school's status, as it could train officially recognized female talents through commercial education in a regular school. Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School held such great significance for Cha Mi-risa that she changed her surname and given name from Kim Mi-risa back to her original Cha Mi-risa in March 1936, coinciding with the graduation of the first class of Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School. Even after this, Cha Mi-risa did not rest on the laurels of Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School's approval as a regular school but continued to seek its development by presenting a blueprint for its expansion.

2. The Aim of Girls' Vocational Education: Social Advancement and Homemaking, Enriching Women's Lives

Even in the spring of 1934, Cha Mi-risa, in her graduation speech, emphasized and gave meaning to women's education by focusing on 'the home rather than social advancement.'

"Politicians, scholars, artists, and merchants who will astonish the world should emerge from us... But if we think calmly, not everyone can become such. There is nothing more foolish than drawing castles in the air that cannot be realized... Dreaming of being a socialite with an unnecessarily excited mind is not interesting. A woman should go into her home, work diligently and shrewdly, and find true joy there. If she gets carried away by vain thoughts and acts frivolously, she will not only harm herself but also risk that harm spreading to society as a whole."

In the above, Cha Mi-risa emphasized the home, cautioning against premature social advancement. This seems to have been an admonition directed at the graduates of the existing ordinary and advanced courses, as graduates from the vocational course had not yet been produced.

However, two years later, in March 1936, with the graduation of the first class of Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School, Cha Mi-risa's women's education theory began to place greater emphasis on women's social advancement, that is, becoming professional women. She emphasized that 'having a profession' meant 'finding oneself,' escaping from being a subordinate, a slave, or a parasite. She argued that women should marry, but before that, they should first have a profession and engage in activities to find themselves, and only then could they become true wives and sincere mothers. She asserted that women, as human beings, should recognize themselves as members of society and should not take up a profession merely to prepare for marriage or out of financial necessity, but should advance into society with the firm conviction that 'I will carve out my own life.' She concluded by urging women to learn so they could escape slavery and to be economically independent to fully find themselves. She instilled in her female students the consciousness of women's rights, telling them to 'surpass men,' and to achieve this, she sought to provide women's education that would enable them to find employment, build economic power, and cultivate their abilities in society. Cha Mi-risa's women's education theory was based on the consciousness of women's rights.

As a result of Cha Mi-risa and Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School advocating commercial education for women and focusing on vocational training, the number of graduates finding employment in various institutions such as banks, companies, and financial cooperatives increased. However, in reality, the career paths of graduates were split almost equally between employment and homemaking. Perhaps for this reason, the media emphasized the qualities and roles of homemakers, as well as professional women, as advantages of Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School's women's education.

"While we, who are lacking in people, may need great knowledge and ideals, true and hardworking homemakers, and skillful housewives will take the reins. This school's ethos is simply to cultivate skillful workers. The young women who learn these solid homemaking skills here will scatter throughout our society to fulfill their respective duties."

This tone in the media likely reflected the school authorities'—that is, Cha Mi-risa's—philosophy of women's education. This is because when Cha Mi-risa submitted her application to the Governor-General in April 1932 to convert Geunhwa Girls' School into Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School, she had already envisioned including both commercial and homemaking courses in the vocational department. Furthermore, in 1933, she planned to recruit 50 students each for the homemaking and commercial courses, indicating her desire to have both commercial and homemaking courses at Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School. It is evident that Cha Mi-risa, while reorganizing the school's system and content for its promotion to a regular school, sought to incorporate both the general public's demand for stronger homemaking education in girls' schools and the women's movement's pressing need for women's economic independence and advancement of women's rights. This reflected Cha Mi-risa's comprehensive women's education theory, which aimed to cultivate both capable professional women and homemakers, both of whom were realistically needed in Korean society. However, the Governor-General did not accept Cha Mi-risa's application for the establishment of a homemaking course and only approved the commercial course, thus recognizing Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School as a regular commercial school. Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School was ultimately a product of the intersection between Cha Mi-risa's women's education philosophy and the educational policies of the Joseon Government-General.

In 1938, Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School was renamed 'Duksung Girls' Vocational School' as a compromise with the Japanese authorities, who disliked the name 'Geunhwa' which carried a sense of national identity. As a school aimed at employment, students focused on commercial subjects and practiced abacus and typing. The school even established a sales department to allow students to practice selling goods and learn business, as many graduates went on to work as shop girls (sales associates) in department stores and large shops. In 1939, there was an increase in requests for the employment of female commercial graduates, and reports even suggested the advent of a 'women's golden age' in the job market, highlighting women's prominent role. Although there was a limitation in that women's lower wages were one reason for their popularity, it was significant that women actively entered the job market and emerged as competitors, making male job seekers nervous.   

However, a year later, in 1940, the employment rate of graduates sharply declined, with twice as many entering homemaking as finding jobs. This was due to a lack of available positions. Reflecting this reality, the media's tone regarding Duksung Girls' Vocational School shifted from the previous year, emphasizing 'education for homemakers' and 'the home as my workplace.' Through this process, the educational goal of Duksung Girls' Vocational School eventually settled on 'fostering professional women and wise mothers and good wives through vocational education,' as envisioned by Cha Mi-risa in 1932.   

In 1940, Cha Mi-risa resigned from her position as principal. While Japanese coercion was a primary factor, her age of 62 and severe hearing loss also contributed to her retirement. She transferred the principalship and the school to Song Geum-seon.   

At this time, Cha Mi-risa's focus in women's education was on regular vocational education. This was for women's self-reliance, economic activities, social activities, and the advancement of women's rights. And the content of the vocational education for women that she envisioned included practical education such as commercial and sales training, as well as homemaking and side job-related skills like technical arts and sewing. The goal of the women's education she pursued was the expansion and development of Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School. However, there were limitations in the reality of Japanese rule, where her ideals for women's education could not be realized and expanded without being influenced by Japanese policies.

V. Conclusion

A. The Multilayered Significance of Cha Mi-risa's Educational Activities: Her Education, an Echo Beyond Time

Cha Mi-risa's women's educational activities, starting from a personal 'empathetic attitude,' continuously changed and developed amidst the demands of the times and practical constraints, holding multilayered significance. She achieved the remarkable feat of developing the Buin Yahak Gangseupso into Geunhwa Academy, Geunhwa Girls' School, and then into the regular secondary vocational education institution, Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School (Duksung Girls' Vocational School). In this process, she attempted various educational experiments, including general education, secondary education, specialized (higher) education, humanities education, and vocational education.   

In particular, the music department established in 1924 was a groundbreaking attempt, as it was a specialized education program established even before Ewha Women's Professional School's music department (approved in 1925). Furthermore, even when the majority of women were illiterate, she made the decisive choice to shift the focus of her educational endeavors from general education to secondary education, anticipating future changes in educational demand, and, at the crossroads between humanities and vocational fields, she chose the vocational path based on practical considerations. She emphasized the importance of vocational education for women's economic independence and self-reliance, as well as homemaking education necessary for family life, pursuing practical and real-world education. Her educational activities were timely, responding appropriately to the expectations and needs of society at the time, and consistently received favorable responses from the media and the public.

Table 4: Evolution and Focus of Cha Mi-risa's Educational Institutions

Period/Year	Institution Name	Type/Status	Main Educational Focus/Characteristics
1920	Buin Yahak Gangseupso	Night School	Basic literacy education, improvement of family life
1923	Geunhwa Academy	Day & Night School	New establishment of Girls' High School entrance preparatory class, expansion of educational target
1925	Geunhwa Girls' School	Special-purpose School (mainly day classes)	Establishment of ordinary and advanced courses, attempt to strengthen humanities secondary education, attempt at specialized English/Music courses
1935	Geunhwa Girls' Vocational School	Regular Class B Commercial School	Secondary vocational education (commercial education-focused), emphasis on women's economic independence
1938	Duksung Girls' Vocational School	Regular Class B Commercial School	Name change due to Japanese pressure, continuation of vocational educ

B. Realistic Approach and Limitations: Her Wise Choices in the Face of Reality's Wall

Cha Mi-risa's educational activities, while broadly possessing the character of a national movement and women's liberation movement, exhibited pragmatic and realistic compromises in their specific development. After the loss of national sovereignty in 1910, she ceased her national restoration efforts and focused on women's education. The nationwide lecture tour of the Joseon Women's Education Association, led by Cha Mi-risa in 1921, proceeded with the permission and cooperation of the Japanese authorities for 'gatherings and fundraising activities,' and received significant attention and coverage from the government-controlled newspaper 『Maeil Shinbo』. This contrasts sharply with Kim Hwal-lan's seven-member evangelist group, whose lectures were often interrupted or prohibited, eventually forcing them to halt their tour, suggesting that Cha Mi-risa received relatively preferential treatment from the Japanese authorities. Indeed, after returning from the United States in 1921, she never mentioned national issues, participated in independence movements, or was imprisoned.   

Furthermore, when the Japanese authorities expressed dissatisfaction with the school name 'Geunhwa,' which embodied national consciousness, she compromised by renaming it 'Duksung' in 1938. In 1940, although forced to resign as principal by the Japanese, she chose Song Geum-seon, a wealthy and capable individual, as her successor to ensure the school's expansion and development, demonstrating a realistic measure that considered political and practical aspects.   

However, this realistic approach also had its limitations. Cha Mi-risa's women's education theory lacked insight into structural social problems such as the Japanese colonial exploitation policies, the legal status of women, domestic labor and childcare, household economics, and the valuation of the homemaker's role in social reproduction. She also rarely mentioned the active rural enlightenment movements or national issues of the time. This can be attributed to her dedication to the immediate practical problems of maintaining and developing Geunhwa Girls' School and securing its finances.   

C. Lasting Legacy: Duksung Women's University, How Does Her Dream Live On Today?

Cha Mi-risa's educational activities have continued as a lasting legacy beyond her lifetime, extending to the present day. The Geunhwa Academy she founded became the root of today's Duksung Women's University , and a statue of Cha Mi-risa and the Cha Mi-risa Memorial Hall stand on the Duksung Women's University campus, commemorating her educational philosophy. Her educational philosophy, "Live your own life! Think your own thoughts! Know by your own enlightenment!" is inherited as the founding philosophy of Duksung Women's University, serving as an important guide for practicing women's education.   

Duksung Women's University received approval for its establishment as Duksung Women's Junior College in 1950 , and has steadily grown, reorganizing into a comprehensive university in 1987 and changing its name to Duksung Women's University. Cha Mi-risa's ideal of a higher education institution for women has been realized with the development of Duksung Women's University, and in 2002, she was posthumously awarded the Order of Merit for National Foundation, Patriotic Grade, officially recognizing her contributions to the independence movement and education. Cha Mi-risa will be remembered as a true pioneer and an eternal teacher of the nation, who, in the dark era of Japanese colonial rule, empathized with women's suffering and dedicated herself to enabling them to become self-reliant and grow into active members of society through education.   

Reference

• Author: Kim, Sung-eun    

• Title: A Study on Melissa Cha's Korean Female Education during the Japanese Colonial Period   

• Source: 『Jungang Saron』 (Central Historical Review) Vol. 36

• Publication Year: 2012 

• Pages: 99-145