A Study on the Multi-layered Communication Network and Women's Agency in the Daegu March 8th Independence Movement
A Study on the Multi-layered Communication Network and Women's Agency in the Daegu March 8th Independence Movement
I. Introduction
The March 1st Movement of 1919 is regarded as a watershed moment in the history of the Korean independence movement, marked by the nationwide participation of the entire populace. However, historical narratives have tended to focus on the male-centric central leadership of the 33 National Representatives, with a relative lack of micro-level analysis on the specific organizational processes of regional movements and the organic relationships among various actors. In particular, the process through which students, a major driving force of the movement—and among them, female intellectuals and students—were mobilized and the subjective roles they played requires more in-depth exploration.
This paper focuses on the Manse (Long Live Independence) Movement that unfolded in Daegu on March 8, 1919, aiming to elucidate the reality of the communication network and cooperation between male and female intellectuals, primarily through primary sources, especially the court verdicts of the time and testimonies of those involved. The Daegu March 8th Manse Movement exemplifies a cooperative model where a plan from the central leadership in Seoul was transmitted through a regional network of male intellectuals, who then formed a horizontal alliance with a local network of female intellectuals for its successful execution. The purpose of this study is to argue that in this process, women, centered around Sinmyeong Women's School (信明女學校), were not merely subjects of mobilization but key actors who, in an equal partnership with male leaders, were responsible for the organization and execution of the movement.
II. The Vertical Communication Network Connecting the Center and the Region: The Role of Male Leadership
The planning of the Daegu March 8th Manse Movement began with a vertical connection to the central leadership in Seoul. This stage was primarily conducted through the Christian network of male leaders, and the "Verdicts" of those involved serve as crucial primary sources that clearly prove this communication system.
Yi Gap-seong (李甲成), one of the 33 National Representatives, was responsible for distributing the Declaration of Independence in the Daegu and Gyeongbuk regions.
The final recipient of the Declaration was Lee Man-jip (李萬集), who was then the pastor of Namseongjeong Church (now Daegu Jeil Church) and the president of the Gyonam Christian Youth Association (the forerunner of Daegu YMCA). According to the "Verdict for Lee Man-jip et al. (Daegu District Court, April 18, 1919)," upon receiving 200 copies of the Declaration, he immediately convened with key regional Christian male intellectuals, including Kim Tae-ryeon (金兌鍊), a lay leader at Namsan Church, and Kim Yeong-seo (金永瑞) and Baek Nam-chae (白南埰), teachers at Gyeseong School, to plot the uprising.
Thus, the initial planning stage of the movement proceeded through a clear vertical communication system where a central male leader directly issued directives to a regional network of male intellectuals. This was an essential process for maintaining the unity and security of the uprising.
III. Activation of the Horizontal Cooperation Network between Male and Female Intellectuals
The male leadership alone could not have succeeded in a large-scale public demonstration. The quantitative expansion and successful execution of the movement absolutely required the organized participation of students, especially female students who had been awakened to national consciousness through modern education. The male leaders in Daegu closely communicated with the female intellectuals of Sinmyeong Women's School to draw out their participation.
Primary sources show that this alliance process was multifaceted and organized. First, there was direct encouragement to participate through external liaisons. On March 7, 1919, Kim Mu-saeng (金武生), a student at Soongsil School in Pyongyang, and Park Jae-won (朴齋元), an evangelist from Gimcheon Presbyterian Church, visited Sinmyeong Women's School in person. They vividly conveyed the situation of the Manse Movement already underway in Seoul and Pyongyang and the active participation of women there to teachers like Im Bong-seon (林鳳善), strongly urging them to join the Daegu uprising.
Second, there was direct communication between male and female student organizations. Heo Beom (許範), a student at Daegu Public High School, is recorded to have first consulted with Sinmyeong Women's School teacher Lee Jae-in (李在寅) and then officially requested student mobilization from Im Bong-seon. This suggests that there were close prior discussions and role-sharing between the representatives of the boys' and girls' schools.
Finally, the regional male leadership, led by Pastor Lee Man-jip, also officially informed Sinmyeong Women's School of the Manse demonstration plan and requested their active participation.
IV. The Agency of Women: The Hub of Organization and Execution
After the horizontal cooperative relationship with the male leadership was established, the women of Sinmyeong Women's School did not passively wait for instructions. They moved voluntarily and systematically within the school, making a decisive contribution to the success of the March 8th Manse Movement.
Im Bong-seon, a 23-year-old teacher at Sinmyeong Women's School at the time, demonstrated the most crucial leadership in this process. She, along with her colleague Lee Jae-seon (李在仙), took the lead in rallying the students. She was not only a channel for external communication but also a field commander who personally organized and led about 50 students within the school to carry out the demonstration. This is the only case in the Gyeongbuk region of organized participation in the Manse Movement at the level of a girls' school, attesting to the outstanding leadership of the female intellectual Im Bong-seon.
On March 8th, virtually the entire student body and alumnae of Sinmyeong Women's School participated in the Manse Movement.
The "Verdict" clearly records their sacrifice. Teacher Im Bong-seon, who was shouting "Manse" at the forefront of the demonstration, was arrested on the spot and sentenced to one year in prison, and many of the participating students also suffered imprisonment. This is clear primary evidence showing that women did not remain in a supportive role in the rear of the movement but fought at the most dangerous front lines, accepting sacrifice. This spirit of resistance at Sinmyeong Women's School did not end with the March 8th Manse Movement; its graduates went on to play active roles in secret societies like the Korean Patriotic Women's Association, carrying on the tradition of the anti-Japanese movement.
V. Table of Key Figures and Communication Network
| Category | Figure | Affiliation | Key Role and Connections | Related Sources |
| Central Liaison | Yi Gap-seong (李甲成) | 33 National Representatives | Delivered the central leadership's uprising plan and Declaration of Independence to Pastor Lee Man-jip in Daegu. Acted as the catalyst for the Daegu March 8th Movement. | |
| Regional Male Leadership | Lee Man-jip (李萬集) | Pastor, Namseongjeong Church | Received the Declaration of Independence from Yi Gap-seong and oversaw the planning of the Daegu regional Manse Movement. Officially requested participation from Sinmyeong Women's School. | |
| Kim Tae-ryeon (金兌鍊) | Lay Leader, Namsan Church | Co-planned the uprising with Pastor Lee Man-jip and led the copying of the Declaration of Independence and production of Taegeukgi. | ||
| Kim Yeong-seo (金永瑞) | Teacher, Gyeseong School | Participated in secret meetings with Lee Man-jip, Kim Tae-ryeon, etc., to jointly plan the Manse Movement. | ||
| Baek Nam-chae (白南埰) | Teacher, Gyeseong School | As a member of the regional male leadership, played a role in encouraging Sinmyeong Women's School to join the Manse Movement. | ||
| External and Student Liaisons | Kim Mu-saeng (金武生) | Student, Soongsil School (Pyongyang) | Visited Sinmyeong Women's School on March 7th to report on the demonstrations in Seoul/Pyongyang and encourage female students' participation. | |
| Park Jae-won (朴齋元) | Evangelist, Gimcheon Presbyterian Church | Accompanied Kim Mu-saeng to Sinmyeong Women's School to persuade women to participate. | ||
| Heo Beom (許範) | Student, Daegu Public High School | Directly contacted teachers Lee Jae-in and Im Bong-seon of Sinmyeong Women's School to coordinate a joint male-female student demonstration. | ||
| Female Leadership (Sinmyeong Women's School) | Im Bong-seon (林鳳善) | Teacher, Sinmyeong Women's School | Received external communications and served as the on-site commander-in-chief, organizing and leading about 50 students in the demonstration. | |
| Lee Jae-seon (李在仙) | Teacher, Sinmyeong Women's School | A key colleague who worked with teacher Im Bong-seon to rally students and encourage participation in the demonstration. | ||
| Lee Jae-in (李在寅) | Teacher, Sinmyeong Women's School | Acted as a bridge for the joint male-female student demonstration through contact with Daegu Public High School student Heo Beom. |
VI. Conclusion
The analysis of the Daegu March 8th Manse Movement, based on primary sources, provides a three-dimensional understanding of the development of the March 1st Movement. The uprising in Daegu was the product of an organic combination of a vertical communication network originating from the central male leadership and a horizontal cooperation network between regional male and female intellectual groups.
In this process, the teachers and students of Sinmyeong Women's School were not passive recipients of the male leaders' plans. They were a key driving force that subjectively accepted external information and, under the command of an outstanding female leader, Im Bong-seon, voluntarily and systematically moved to bring the Manse Movement to a successful conclusion. While the male leadership showed strength in connecting with the center and establishing the overall plan, the female leadership played a decisive role in mobilizing internal school organizations and executing the plan on the ground, thus establishing a symbiotic cooperative relationship.
Therefore, the Daegu March 8th Manse Movement is a historical case that clearly proves the subjective role of women, which is often overlooked in male-centric narratives of the independence movement. The primary sources testify that women, in the face of the great national cause of independence, communicated with male intellectuals as equal partners and were historical actors who, at times, led the field more bravely than them.
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